1. The Revolt of 1857: Watershed Moment of British Colonial Rule
Termed the "First War of Indian Independence" by V.D. Savarkar and the "Sepoy Mutiny" by British imperial historians, the uprising of 1857 marked the formal end of the British East India Company's rule and transferred sovereignty directly to the British Crown via the Government of India Act 1858 (Queen Victoria's Proclamation).
Underlying Causes:
- Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie): Annexation of Satara, Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Baghat, Udaipur, Jhansi, and Nagpur. Outram's report used to annex Awadh in 1856 on charges of "misgovernance".
- Socio-Religious Resentment: Religious Disabilities Act 1856, taxation of mosque/temple lands, fear of proselytization.
- Military Grievances: General Service Enlistment Act 1856 (mandatory overseas deployment violating caste norms), severe salary disparities between British and native sepoys.
- Immediate Trigger: Introduction of the Enfield Rifle requiring sepoys to bite off cartridges greased with cow and pig fat. On 29 March 1857, Mangal Pandey mutinied at Barrackpore (34th Bengal Native Infantry).
Key Centres and Revolutionary Leaders:
- Delhi: Nominal head Bahadur Shah Zafar; actual military commander General Bakht Khan. Suppressed by John Nicholson and Hudson.
- Kanpur: Nana Saheb (adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II) assisted by Tatya Tope and Azimullah Khan. Suppressed by Colin Campbell.
- Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal proclaimed her son Birjis Qadir as Nawab. Suppressed by Colin Campbell.
- Jhansi & Gwalior: Rani Lakshmibai fought valiantly until her martyrdom at Kotah-ki-Serai; suppressed by Hugh Rose.
- Bihar (Jagdishpur): 80-year-old landlord Kunwar Singh and his brother Amar Singh.
2. Three Distinct Phases of Indian National Movement
Phase I: The Moderate Era (1885 – 1905)
Constitutional Agitation (3 Ps)- Foundation of INC: Established in December 1885 at Bombay by retired British civil servant Allan Octavian Hume. First President: Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee (attended by 72 delegates). Viceroy: Lord Dufferin.
- Key Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji ("Grand Old Man of India"), Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Dinshaw Wacha, Surendranath Banerjea.
- Methodology: Prayers, Petitions, and Protests (3 Ps); firm belief in British justice, aiming for administrative reforms and legislative council expansion (Indian Councils Act 1892).
- Economic Critique of Colonialism: Dadabhai Naoroji authored Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901) formulating the celebrated Drain of Wealth Theory, supported by Romesh Chunder Dutt (Economic History of India) and M.G. Ranade.
Phase II: The Militant Nationalist Era (1905 – 1919)
Swadeshi & Boycott- Partition of Bengal (1905): Executed by Viceroy Lord Curzon on 16 October 1905 under the pretext of administrative efficiency, but essentially to divide Hindu and Muslim populations. Marked as a Day of Mourning and Raksha Bandhan day across Bengal.
- The Lal-Bal-Pal Triumvirate: Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab), Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra — coined "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it", started Shivaji and Ganpati festivals), and Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal) alongside Aurobindo Ghosh.
- Surat Split (1907): INC split into Moderates and Extremists at the Surat session presided by Rash Behari Ghosh over the presidency and scope of Swadeshi. Reunified in the 1916 Lucknow Session.
- Home Rule League Movement (1916): Launched independently by Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Pune) and Annie Besant (Madras) demanding self-government on the lines of the Irish Home Rule model.
- Lucknow Pact (1916): Historic accord between INC and the All India Muslim League (founded in 1906 in Dhaka by Nawab Salimullah and Aga Khan). INC conceded separate electorates for Muslims.
Phase III: The Gandhian Mass Era (1919 – 1947)
Satyagraha & Mass Mobilization| Movement / Milestone | Year | Primary Trigger & Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Early Gandhian Experiments | 1917–1918 | Champaran Satyagraha (1917): First Civil Disobedience against Tinkathia indigo system. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): First Hunger Strike (35% plague bonus). Kheda Satyagraha (1918): First Non-Cooperation due to crop failure. |
| Rowlatt Satyagraha & Jallianwala Bagh | 1919 | Anarchical Crimes Act (Rowlatt Act) allowing detention without trial. On 13 April 1919 (Baisakhi), General Reginald Dyer opened fire on unarmed gathering in Amritsar, killing hundreds. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his Knighthood. |
| Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movement | 1920–1922 | Launched at special Calcutta session and ratified at Nagpur (1920). Boycott of foreign cloth, courts, and schools. Suspended by Gandhi after the violent Chauri Chaura incident on 4 February 1922 in Gorakhpur where 22 policemen were killed. |
| Civil Disobedience & Dandi March | 1930–1934 | Triggered by the 1929 Lahore Session (presided by Jawaharlal Nehru adopting Poorna Swaraj). On 12 March 1930, Gandhi marched from Sabarmati to Dandi (240 miles with 78 followers), breaking the salt law on 6 April 1930. Led to Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931). |
| Quit India Movement (August Kranti) | 1942 | Following the failure of Cripps Mission, AICC passed resolution at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay on 8 August 1942. Gandhi gave the clarion call: "Do or Die" (Karo ya Maro). British launched Operation Zero Hour arresting top leaders overnight; underground radio led by Usha Mehta. |
| Cabinet Mission & Independence | 1946–1947 | Cabinet Mission (Pethick-Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander) designed Constituent Assembly framework. Lord Mountbatten announced the June 3rd Plan (1947), leading to the enactment of the Indian Independence Act 1947 on 15 August 1947. |